Pattern	Don't Just Say	Ask Instead
Primitive obsession	"It's just a string"	What does this value represent?
Boolean flags	"Add an is_valid flag"	Can states be types?
Optional everywhere	"Check for None"	Is absence really possible?
Validation at runtime	"Return Err if invalid"	Can we validate at construction?

Thinking Prompt

Before adding runtime validation:

Can the type encode the constraint?
- Numeric range → bounded types or newtypes
- Valid states → type state pattern
- Semantic meaning → newtype
When is validation possible?
- At construction → validated newtype
- At state transition → type state
- Only at runtime → Result with clear error
Who needs to know the invariant?
- Compiler → type-level encoding
- API users → clear type signatures
- Runtime only → documentation

Trace Up ↑

When type design is unclear:

"Need to validate email format"
    ↑ Ask: Is this a domain value object?
    ↑ Check: m09-domain (Email as Value Object)
    ↑ Check: domain-* (validation requirements)

Situation	Trace To	Question
What types to create	m09-domain	What's the domain model?
State machine design	m09-domain	What are valid transitions?
Marker trait usage	m04-zero-cost	Static or dynamic dispatch?

Trace Down ↓

From design to implementation:

"Need type-safe wrapper for primitives"
    ↓ Newtype: struct UserId(u64);

"Need compile-time state validation"
    ↓ Type State: Connection<Connected>

"Need to track phantom type parameters"
    ↓ PhantomData: PhantomData<T>

"Need capability markers"
    ↓ Marker Trait: trait Validated {}

"Need gradual construction"
    ↓ Builder: Builder::new().field(x).build()

Quick Reference

Pattern	Purpose	Example
Newtype	Type safety	`struct UserId(u64);`
Type State	State machine	`Connection<Connected>`
PhantomData	Variance/lifetime	`PhantomData<&'a T>`
Marker Trait	Capability flag	`trait Validated {}`
Builder	Gradual construction	`Builder::new().name("x").build()`
Sealed Trait	Prevent external impl	`mod private { pub trait Sealed {} }`

Pattern Examples

Newtype

struct Email(String);  // Not just any string

impl Email {
    pub fn new(s: &str) -> Result<Self, ValidationError> {
        // Validate once, trust forever
        validate_email(s)?;
        Ok(Self(s.to_string()))
    }
}

Type State

struct Connection<State>(TcpStream, PhantomData<State>);

struct Disconnected;
struct Connected;
struct Authenticated;

impl Connection<Disconnected> {
    fn connect(self) -> Connection<Connected> { ... }
}

impl Connection<Connected> {
    fn authenticate(self) -> Connection<Authenticated> { ... }
}

Decision Guide

Need	Pattern
Type safety for primitives	Newtype
Compile-time state validation	Type State
Lifetime/variance markers	PhantomData
Capability flags	Marker Trait
Gradual construction	Builder
Closed set of impls	Sealed Trait
Zero-sized type marker	ZST struct

Anti-Patterns

Anti-Pattern	Why Bad	Better
Boolean flags for states	Runtime errors	Type state
String for semantic types	No type safety	Newtype
Option for uninitialized	Unclear invariant	Builder
Public fields with invariants	Invariant violation	Private + validated new()

Related Skills

When	See
Domain modeling	m09-domain
Trait design	m04-zero-cost
Error handling in constructors	m06-error-handling
Anti-patterns	m15-anti-pattern

m05-type-driven

Type-Driven Design

Core Question

Error → Design Question