Detailed: ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ │ Source │→→→│ Mic │→→→│ Preamp │→→→│Interface│ │(voice, │ │ │ │ │ │ (A/D) │ │ instr.) │ │ │ │ │ │ │ └─────────┘ └─────────┘ └─────────┘ └────┬────┘ │ ▼ ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ │Speakers │←←←│ (D/A) │←←←│ Mix │←←←│ DAW │ │Headphone│ │Interface│ │ Master │ │Recording│ └─────────┘ └─────────┘ └─────────┘ └─────────┘


### Key Audio Concepts

| Concept           | Definition                   | Standard                        |
| ----------------- | ---------------------------- | ------------------------------- |
| **Sample Rate**   | Samples per second           | 44.1kHz, 48kHz, 96kHz           |
| **Bit Depth**     | Dynamic range resolution     | 16-bit, 24-bit, 32-bit float    |
| **Bit Rate**      | Data per second (compressed) | 128-320 kbps (MP3)              |
| **Dynamic Range** | Loudest to quietest          | ~96dB (16-bit), ~144dB (24-bit) |
| **Headroom**      | Space below 0 dBFS           | -6 to -18 dB typical            |

### Frequency Spectrum

20 Hz 20,000 Hz ├───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤

SUB-BASS │ BASS │ LOW-MID │ MID │ HIGH-MID │ HIGH 20-60 │ 60-250 │ 250-500 │500-2k │ 2k-6k │ 6k-20k │ │ │ │ │ Rumble │ Warmth │ Body │ Pres- │ Presence │ Air Feel │ Punch │ Muddiness│ ence │ Harshness│ Sibilance


### Decibel Reference Points

dBFS (Full Scale): 0 dBFS ████████████ Digital maximum (clipping) -3 dBFS ██████████ Peaks (leave headroom) -6 dBFS █████████ Recommended peak ceiling -12 dBFS ███████ Average loud signal -18 dBFS ██████ Recommended recording level -24 dBFS ████ Conservative level -60 dBFS █ Noise floor target


---

## Recording

### Microphone Types

| Type          | Principle        | Best For                        |
| ------------- | ---------------- | ------------------------------- |
| **Dynamic**   | Moving coil      | Loud sources, live, durable     |
| **Condenser** | Capacitor        | Studio vocals, acoustic, detail |
| **Ribbon**    | Thin metal strip | Vintage tone, smooth highs      |
| **USB**       | Built-in ADC     | Podcasts, convenience           |

### Polar Patterns

CARDIOID FIGURE-8 OMNI ╭─────╮ ╭───╮ ╭─────╮ ╭─┤ ├─╮ ╭─┤ ├─╮ ╭─┤ ├─╮ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ● │ │ │ │ ● │ │ │ │ ● │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ╰─┤ ├─╯ ╰─┤ ├─╯ ╰─┤ ├─╯ ╰─────╯ ╰───╯ ╰─────╯ Front pickup Front + Back All around


### Recording Levels

Target Peaks: -12 to -6 dBFS Average Level: -18 to -12 dBFS

Why?

Leaves headroom for processing
Matches analog equipment sweet spot
Prevents digital clipping
24-bit has plenty of resolution


### Recording Best Practices

- [ ] Set gain before recording (never during)
- [ ] Record at 24-bit minimum
- [ ] Use 48kHz for video, 44.1kHz for music
- [ ] Monitor with headphones
- [ ] Record a few seconds of room tone
- [ ] Check phase when using multiple mics
- [ ] Label takes immediately

---

## Essential Processing

### EQ (Equalization)

Types:

High-pass filter (HPF): Removes low frequencies
Low-pass filter (LPF): Removes high frequencies
Bell/Peak: Boost or cut specific frequency
Shelf: Boost or cut above/below frequency

Common Applications: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Vocal: │ │ HPF at 80-100Hz (remove rumble) │ │ Cut 200-300Hz (reduce mud) │ │ Boost 3-5kHz (presence) │ │ Shelf boost 10kHz+ (air) │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ Kick Drum: │ │ Boost 50-80Hz (sub) │ │ Cut 300-400Hz (boxiness) │ │ Boost 3-5kHz (attack/click) │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ Electric Guitar: │ │ HPF at 80Hz │ │ Cut 400-600Hz if muddy │ │ Boost 2-4kHz (bite) │ └─────────────────────────────────────────┘


### Compression

Parameters: ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Threshold: Level where compression starts │ │ Ratio: Amount of compression (4:1, 8:1, etc.) │ │ Attack: Time to engage (fast=punch, slow=body)│ │ Release: Time to disengage │ │ Knee: Hard (sudden) or soft (gradual) │ │ Makeup Gain: Restore lost volume │ └────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Common Settings: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Vocals: 3:1-4:1, medium attack/release │ │ Drums: 4:1-8:1, fast attack │ │ Bass: 4:1, medium attack │ │ Mix Bus: 2:1-3:1, slow attack, 1-3dB GR│ └─────────────────────────────────────────┘


### Reverb

| Type        | Character       | Use                 |
| ----------- | --------------- | ------------------- |
| **Room**    | Small, tight    | Natural ambience    |
| **Hall**    | Large, spacious | Orchestral, ballads |
| **Plate**   | Bright, smooth  | Vocals, snare       |
| **Spring**  | Vintage, boingy | Guitar, lo-fi       |
| **Chamber** | Warm, dense     | Natural depth       |

Key Parameters:

Pre-delay: Time before reverb (50-100ms for vocals)
Decay/RT60: How long it lasts
Damping: High-frequency absorption
Size: Room dimensions
Mix/Wet-Dry: Balance with original


### Delay

| Type           | Application                    |
| -------------- | ------------------------------ |
| **Slapback**   | 50-150ms, rockabilly, presence |
| **Stereo**     | Different L/R times, width     |
| **Ping-pong**  | Alternating L/R, interest      |
| **Tempo-sync** | 1/4, 1/8 notes, rhythmic       |

---

## Mixing

### Gain Staging

Signal Flow Levels: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Input: -18 dBFS (sweet spot) │ │ ↓ │ │ Plugin 1: Output matches input level │ │ ↓ │ │ Plugin 2: Output matches input level │ │ ↓ │ │ Fader: Unity (0 dB) ideally │ │ ↓ │ │ Bus: -12 to -6 dBFS peaks │ │ ↓ │ │ Master: -6 dBFS peaks (before limit) │ └─────────────────────────────────────────┘


### Panning Guidelines

Stereo Field: Hard L L L-C CENTER R-C R Hard R │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Rhythm Gtr1 Keys1 Vocal Keys2 Gtr2 Rhythm Gtr BVox1 Bass BVox2 Gtr Kick Snare

Common Positions:

Center (0): Lead vocal, bass, kick, snare
Slight L/R: Main instruments, harmonies
Wide L/R: Rhythm guitars, stereo keys
Hard L/R: Doubled parts, effects


### Frequency Balancing

Making space (subtractive EQ approach): ┌────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Kick: Boost 60Hz │ Cut from Bass here │ │ Bass: Boost 80-100 │ Cut from Kick here │ │ Gtr: Owns 1-3kHz │ Cut vocal slightly │ │ Vocal: Boost 3-5kHz │ Cut guitar slightly │ └────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Each element should have its own frequency "home"


### Mix Bus Processing

Typical Chain:

Subtle EQ (tonal shaping)
Light compression (2:1, 1-3dB GR)
Stereo enhancement (if needed)
Limiter (only for reference bounce)

Keep mix bus processing minimal! Leave headroom for mastering.


---

## Mastering

### Mastering Goals

1. **Tonal Balance**: Even frequency response
2. **Dynamics**: Appropriate loudness/dynamics
3. **Stereo Image**: Width and mono compatibility
4. **Translation**: Sounds good everywhere
5. **Format**: Prepare for distribution

### Loudness Standards

| Platform           | Target         | Measurement |
| ------------------ | -------------- | ----------- |
| **Spotify**        | -14 LUFS       | Integrated  |
| **Apple Music**    | -16 LUFS       | Integrated  |
| **YouTube**        | -14 LUFS       | Integrated  |
| **Broadcast (US)** | -24 LUFS       | Integrated  |
| **Broadcast (EU)** | -23 LUFS       | Integrated  |
| **CD**             | -9 to -12 LUFS | Integrated  |

### Mastering Chain (Typical)

Reference Import └─→ Compare to commercial releases
EQ (Linear Phase) └─→ Broad adjustments only
Multiband Compression └─→ Control specific bands
Stereo Width └─→ Enhance or narrow
Limiting └─→ Final loudness, prevent clipping
Dither (if needed) └─→ 16-bit conversion only


---

## Podcast Production

### Recording Setup

Recommended Signal Chain: Mic → Audio Interface → DAW

Equipment Tiers: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Budget: USB Mic (Blue Yeti, AT2020) │ │ Mid: SM7B + Cloudlifter + Interface│ │ Pro: Large diaphragm condenser │ │ + high-end preamp │ └─────────────────────────────────────────┘


### Podcast Processing Chain

Noise Reduction └─→ Remove room noise, hum
De-essing └─→ Tame harsh "s" sounds
Compression └─→ Even out volume (3:1-4:1)
EQ └─→ HPF at 80Hz, presence boost
Limiter └─→ Catch peaks, -1 dBFS ceiling

Target: -16 LUFS (mono), -19 LUFS (stereo) True Peak: -1 dBTP


### Podcast Export Settings

Standard:

Format: MP3 or AAC
Bitrate: 128 kbps (mono), 192 kbps (stereo)
Sample rate: 44.1 kHz

High Quality:

Format: AAC
Bitrate: 256 kbps
Sample rate: 48 kHz

Chapters: Use ID3 tags for chapter markers Artwork: 3000x3000 minimum, JPG or PNG


---

## Sound Design

### Creating Sounds

Approaches:

Recording: Capture real sounds (foley)
Synthesis: Create from oscillators
Sampling: Manipulate existing sounds
Processing: Transform through effects
Layering: Combine multiple sources


### Synthesis Types

| Type                  | Method               | Sound Character       |
| --------------------- | -------------------- | --------------------- |
| **Subtractive**       | Filter oscillators   | Classic analog        |
| **FM**                | Frequency modulation | Metallic, bells       |
| **Wavetable**         | Morphing waveforms   | Modern, evolving      |
| **Granular**          | Tiny sound particles | Texture, pads         |
| **Additive**          | Stack sine waves     | Precise, organs       |
| **Physical Modeling** | Simulate physics     | Realistic instruments |

### Layering Formula

Sound Design Stack: ┌─────────────────────────────────────┐ │ TOP: High frequencies (air, presence)│ │ MID: Character, tone │ │ LOW: Foundation, weight │ │ SUB: Felt, not heard (20-60Hz) │ │ TRANSIENT: Attack, punch │ └─────────────────────────────────────┘

Process each layer separately, combine at end.


---

## DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations)

| DAW              | Strengths                    | Platform |
| ---------------- | ---------------------------- | -------- |
| **Pro Tools**    | Industry standard, editing   | All      |
| **Logic Pro**    | Complete package, Apple      | macOS    |
| **Ableton Live** | Live performance, electronic | All      |
| **FL Studio**    | Beat making, workflow        | All      |
| **Reaper**       | Customizable, affordable     | All      |
| **Cubase**       | MIDI, composition            | All      |
| **Studio One**   | Modern workflow              | All      |
| **Audacity**     | Free, simple editing         | All      |

---

## File Formats

| Format   | Type         | Quality  | Use                 |
| -------- | ------------ | -------- | ------------------- |
| **WAV**  | Uncompressed | Lossless | Production, archive |
| **AIFF** | Uncompressed | Lossless | Mac production      |
| **FLAC** | Compressed   | Lossless | Archive, audiophile |
| **ALAC** | Compressed   | Lossless | Apple ecosystem     |
| **MP3**  | Compressed   | Lossy    | Distribution        |
| **AAC**  | Compressed   | Lossy    | Streaming, Apple    |
| **OGG**  | Compressed   | Lossy    | Games, open source  |

### Export Specifications

For Mastering:

Format: WAV
Bit depth: 24-bit (or 32-bit float)
Sample rate: Match session (typically 44.1/48kHz)
Headroom: -6 dBFS peaks

For Distribution:

Format: WAV or FLAC (lossless)
Bit depth: 16-bit (with dither)
Sample rate: 44.1 kHz
Loudness: Platform target LUFS


---

## Best Practices

### DO:

- Record at proper levels (-18 dBFS average)
- Use reference tracks
- Take breaks (ear fatigue is real)
- Check mono compatibility
- Use subtractive EQ first
- Process in series, not parallel (usually)
- Save project versions regularly
- Export stems for backup

### DON'T:

- Record with processing (usually)
- Mix at high volumes
- Over-compress everything
- Solo instruments too long
- Trust only one playback system
- Rush the mixing process
- Forget to dither (16-bit only)
- Master your own mixes (ideally)

---

## Quality Checklist

### Pre-Export

- [ ] Gain staging correct throughout
- [ ] No clipping or distortion
- [ ] Phase issues resolved
- [ ] Mono compatibility checked
- [ ] Low-end translation verified
- [ ] High frequencies not harsh

### Final Check

- [ ] Listen on multiple systems
- [ ] Check in car, phone, earbuds
- [ ] Verify format specifications
- [ ] Confirm LUFS target met
- [ ] True peak below -1 dBTP
- [ ] Metadata correctly embedded

audio-production

Audio Production

Audio Fundamentals

The Audio Signal Chain